Earthquakes of the World

Earthquakes do not necessarily occur all over the world, but concentrate on the areas where the plates subduct, such as in a belt which girdles the Pacific Ocean, and in the secondary belt between Italy and Indonesia. Japan is located in the circum-Pacific seismic zone where the crustal movement is the most active, and earthquakes are therefore most rampant. While the Japan archipelago and the surrounding continental shelves amount to only 0.1% of the total area of the world, the energy of the earthquakes emitted from there holds about as much as 10% of what the earth generates in total. In Japan a great earthquake of magnitude 8 Class recurs every ten years, and a large-scale earthquake of magnitude 7 class once a year.

2.EARTHQUAKES OF JAPAN

According to the plate tectonics theory, in the vicinity of the Japan Archipelago the four plates of the Pacific, the Philippine Sea, the Eurasian, and the North American exist bordering each other. Their boundary lines are named as the Japan Trench, the Sagami Trough, and the Nankai Trough, respectively.

The Pacific Plate, and the Philippine Sea Plate slide westward by several centimeters every year, and subduct themselves under the Japan Archipelago. This movement pulls in also the edge of the Eurasian Plate, and their strain energy accumulates gradually. When the strain reaches the extreme limit, the plates tend to revert to the original positions, and then both the fracture and the release of an enormous amount of energy take place simultaneously. This is the mechanism of the great earthquakes (oceanic type earthquakes) that break out along the pacific coast of the Japan Archipelago.

Meanwhile, this strain energy also extends inland, causing fractures to occur at faults that exist all over Japan, with a concomitant release of energy. This takes the form of shallow earthquakes occurring with their epicenters along active faults and elsewhere in inland areas. Though small in scale compared to pacific coastal earthquakes, inland earthquakes (vertical-type earthquakes) are characterized in having the potential to cause major damage on a localized basis if the epicenter of the earthquake is shallow.

. Damages from the Earthquakes in Japan

The Japanese urban abound in highly concentrated city blocks of wooden building structures. That fact holds the great possibility of fires breaking out in calamitous proportions once an urban area is hit by a great earthquake, one of the outstanding characters of Japanese earthquake disasters.

The Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 resulted In the conflagration that burned out both Tokyo and Yokohama cities, and extended the damages from the earthquake to a disaster of historical order.

Major cities in Japan have grown up to enormous dimensions with webs of dense and complicated lifelines of communications, transportation, vast number of vehicles, electricity and city gas. Not few of such cities contain sources that aggregate damages from an earthquake, namely, dangerous facilities such as petrochemical industrial complex and housing areas developed on poor unstabilized earth foundation.

The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995 was the first vertical-type earthquake in Japan to directly strike a city where there is a high concentration of socio-economic functions, thus causing tremendous damage with more than 6,400 people dead or missing. Administrative organs and other core functions were themselves damaged, while roads, railways, and other transport facilities, and gas, waterworks and other lifeline facilities were in ruins. As well as this, the disaster victims were forced to spend their lives in evacuation shelters for a protracted period.

See list of Major Earthquake After World War II In Japan.

II. OUTLINE OF DISASTER COUNTERMEASURES IN JAPAN

1. Outline of disaster countermeasures

After the World War 2, Japan was stricken by various great disasters. Such experiences induced various reports and recommendations for reinforcement and consolidation of the national disaster prevention system.

In the meantime, a great disaster was wreaked by the Ise-wan Typhoon of September 1959, which enhanced the motivation among the concerned circles to proceed on developing a nation-wide, comprehensive and objective administrative system for disaster prevention. As a consequence, "the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act" (under the jurisdiction of National Land Agency) was promulgated in November 1961.

The Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act defines the basic administrative policies with regard to the following aspects:

Meanwhile, based on the experience of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act was Partially revised on two occasions (June and October 1995) and disaster countermeasures were thus intensified. The revisions set forth measures to secure the passage of emergency transit vehicles in the event of a disaster, enhance the organization for disaster counter-measures, and strengthen the authority.

. Central Disaster Prevention council

The national government has established the Central Disaster prevention Council to deliberate important matters relating to disaster prevention, with the Prime Minister as chairman, and the heads of the Designated Administrative Organs, and personnel of similar status as members. This council is making its best effort to promote an extensive and the comprehensive countermeasures against disaster.

Plans for Disaster Prevention
2.Progress of Earthquake Disaster Countermeasures

The national policy of Japanese government toward earthquakes until 1960 was mainly concentrated on remedial actions of exposto facto, such as providing financial assistance for relief and recovery activities on the damages inflicted by disaster.

With the enactment of "The Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act" in 1961, the national policy has gradually integrated various countermeasures such as emergency measures, prevention, restoration, and others so that various actions can be synthesized and coordinated into a comprehensive and objective executive actions to attain the ultimate purpose of disaster relief.

National Land Agency was Inaugurated in 1974 taking over the ministerial functions for such countermeasures, and furthermore in 1984 the Disaster Prevention Bureau has been established, a function of which is to develop the disaster countermeasures through comprehensive coordination with various ministries and agencies.

III. EARTHQUAKE DISASTER COUNTERMEASURES IN JAPAN

1.Structure of Earthquake Disaster Countermeasures

Earthquake disaster countermeasures in Japan have been promoted on the basis of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, and the Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention.

Through the lessons learned from the San Fernando Earthquake of February 1971, the Central Disaster Prevention Council has adopted the " Essentials of Earthquake Countermeasures for Large Cities" in May 1971. The same council has also decided in August 1975, and in May 1993, on "Contemporary Promotion of Urgent Disaster Prevention Countermeasures".

Meanwhile, drawing on the experience of the Great Hanshin Earthquake in January 1995, in July of the same year the Earthquake Disaster Prevention special Measures Act was enforced. The Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention was revised by the Central Disaster Prevention Council, a new volume on earthquake disaster countermeasures being added.

Earthquake disaster countermeasures are now being promoted on the basis of these.See the Basic Plan For Disaster Prevention.

3.EARTTHQUAKE DISASTER COUNTERMEASURES IN TOKAI AREA

. Improvement on Earthquake Prediction Systems

In 1976, a study result on the possibility of fractures of large-scale earthquake with hypocenter in Suruga Bay was presented in the Seismological Society of Japan. In the same year, the Coordination Committee for Earthquake Prediction also expressed the same viewpoint. Those expressions motivated the movement to improve the earthquake prediction systems in the Tokai Area through intensified observation and reinforced monitoring systems.

The observation instruments such as seismographs and volumetric strain meters are installed concentratively and the data telemetered to Japan Meteorological Agency are being checked continuously 24 hours a day. In August 1979 the Prediction Committee for the Area under Intensified Measures against Earthquake Disaster was established for the purpose of improving earthquake prediction for the Tokai Earthquake.

Enactment of the large-scale Earthquake Countermeasures Act

Along with the Improvement on the system of earthquake prediction for the Tokai area the Large-scale Earthquake Countermeasures Act (Under the jurisdiction of National Land Agency) was enforced in December 1978. This act was prepared with the main objective of improving disaster prevention system according to an advance warning of the approaching earthquake.

This Act was predicated specifically on the fact that the fracture of a large-scale earthquake could be predicted. All the subsequent actions after receiving such a warning, therefore, are previously defined accordingly. The areas under intensified measures against earthquake disaster are designated, and earthquake observation system and disaster prevention systems are intensified. In case a warning statement based on a prediction information is issued all the organizations and residents take earthquake disaster prevention actions, to reduce damages by earthquake. These actions are prescribed in the plans - Basic Plan for Earthquake Disaster Prevention by Central Disaster Prevention Council; Intensified Plans for Earthquake Prevention by Ministries, Agencies and local governments; and Emergency Plans for Earthquake Disaster Prevention by private enterprises.

Promotion of Projects for Urgent Improvement of Earthquake Countermeasures through Earthquake Special fiscal Measures Act. The preparations in accordance with the Intensified Plan for Earthquake Disaster Prevention, such as improvement of the refuges and evacuation routes, would place a great fiscal burden on the local governments, Thus the Earthquake Special Fiscal Measures Act, or the Act concerning the Special Fiscal Measures for the Project for Urgent Improvement of Earthquake Countermeasures in Areas under Intensified Measures against Earthquake Disaster, (under the jurisdiction of National Land Agency) was enacted In May 1980. Subsequent to this legislation, the Project for Urgent Improvement of Earthquake Countermeasures was executed in the six applicable prefectures to improve the refuges and evacuation routes, and renovate public school buildings earthquake-resistant, etc, (The projected budgetary cost of such works between 1980 and 2000 amounts to \1,065 billion.)

3. EARTHQUAKE DISASTER COUNTERMEASURES FOR LARGER CITIES

In consideration of the enormous and widespread damage that a large-scale earthquake would cause to large city areas, it is essential for the national government, Local governments and other organizations to effectively implement countermeasures operating with each other.

The Central Disaster Prevention Council's Expert Committee on Earthquake Countermeasures for Large Cities mapped out in June 1998 its proposals on the basic approach to and direction of study of earthquake disaster countermeasures for large cities which are to be undertaken by the government as a whole. The proposals, which are based on the lessons learned from the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, call for wide-area cooperation in the southern Kanto, Kinki and Chubu regions in promoting practical and effective earthquake disaster countermeasures that address issues peculiar to large city areas. In addition, the proposals present priority issues pertaining to the prevention measures and preparation of emergency countermeasures.

The national government, Local governments and their related organizations are hoped to engage in deliberations for the realization of countermeasures based on these proposals and promote these measures. Residents and Companies in large city areas are also hoped to undertake initiatives based on these proposals.

4. EARTHQUAKE DISASTER COUNTERMEASURES IN THE SOUTHERN KANTO REGION

If an earthquake of around magnitude 7 were to occur directly below the Southern Kanto Region, which features the concentration of population and various functions, major damage could be caused. As for the extent of the damage from the earthquake, even if the extent of direct damage such as damage to buildings from earthquake movements is localized, depending on the epicenter of the earthquake it is also thought likely that secondary effects, caused for example by obstructions to urban functions, could lead to chaos in the economy and the subsistence of the people, and could spread over a wide area beyond the damage-stricken region, while effects might also be felt on a global scale via financial markets and such like.

(1)The imminence of occurrence of earthquakes in the Southern Kanto Region.

In June 1988 the Central Disaster Prevention Council's Expert Committee on Designated Areas for Intensified Earthquake Disaster Prevention Countermeasures reported that, while a major ocean trench type earthquake of around magnitude 8 was deemed likely to occur along the Sagami Trough some time in the next one or two hundred years, there was a certain degree of imminence of an earthquake of magnitude 7 occurring directly below the Southern Kanto Region.

Continuing on from this interm report, the said Expert Committee conducted a survey study on earthquake models directly below the Southern Kanto Region and the extent of the area which might be expected to suffer considerable damage in the occurrence of such an earthquake, and published the findings of its studies in August 1992.

This report reveals that there is no doubt that the occurrence of an earthquake directly below the said region will become increasingly imminent from now on, and that the extent of the area which might be expected to suffer an earthquake equivalent to an intensity of six or more on the Japanese scale of seven, for which earthquake disaster prevention countermeasures need to be devised with particular priority and which could cause considerable damage if the earthquake were to occur directly underground, extends over six prefectures and the metropolitan region.

Moreover, it becomes clear from these two reports that

(1)an earthquake directly underground is extremely difficult to predict under current circumstances,

(2)that it is not possible to specify any single forecast epicenter region, and

(3) that, according to earthquake models in the latest report, the region which is forecast to suffer an earthquake equivalent to an intensity of six or more on the Japanese scale of seven in the event of occurrence of a single earthquake directly underground would be characterized as having an approximate radius of around 30km, although it could be even more localized.

(2)Earthquake Countermeasures for the Southern Kanto Region.

The Central Disaster Prevention Council established the Guidelines for Emergency Countermeasure Activities against Earthquake Disaster in Southern Kanto Region in December 1988 and the General Principles Relating to Countermeasures for Earthquakes Directly Below the Southern Kanto Region In April 1992. They were revised in June 1998 based on lessons learned from the Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake and proposals presented by the Central Disaster Prevention Council's Expert Committee on Earthquake Countermeasures for Large Cities.

The designated administrative organs and prefectural governments involved are devising various measures based the Operational Plan for Disaster Prevention and the Local Plan for Disaster Prevention.

- General Principles Relating to Countermeasures for Earthquakes Directly below the Southern Kanto Region

The General Principles Relating to Countermeasures for Earthquakes Directly Below the Southern Kanto Region set out the basic approach for establishing the issues involved in carrying out measures to prevent disasters in advance and in implementing policies to deal with the issues involved in order to prevent or minimize the damage caused by earthquakes that occur directly below the Southern Kanto Region, an area characterized by a high probability of earthquake occurrence.

The June 1998 revision describes a new provision for a broad range of practical action plans that can be applied any time to emergency activities by administrative organs, in addition to measures for issues particular to the Southern Kanto Region, including measures for dense urban areas and underground complexes, measures by administrative and economic organs to cope with disasters and measures for those unable to return home.

- Guidelines for Emergency Countermeasure Activities against Earthquake Disaster in Southern Kanto Region

The Guidelines for Emergency Countermeasure Activities against Earthquake Disaster in Southern Kanto Region set out the basic guidelines and procedures implemented by the national government and related organs as coordinated by the Headquarters for Emergency Disaster Countermeasures for the information sharing, transportation, medical aid and rescue efforts provided on an intra-regional basis over the course of emergency activities in order that the related organs can respond in a coordinated and effective way when a major earthquake occurs in the Southern Kanto Region.

The June 1 998 revision includes a new recommendation pointing out the necessity for implementing action plans for providing medical transport and general transport, as well as adding provisions for heath and sanitation, the prevention of secondary disasters and the acceptance of volunteer support.

- Action Plans

As described above, the revised general principles stipulate that a series of action plans be drawn up and agreed on by the Central Disaster Prevention Council. The specific issues in the revised guidelines include

1) Transportation network comprising routes and bases,

2) Transportation bases established over wide areas,

3) Medical activities including transport of the sick and injured,

4) Locations for setting up temporary housing,

5) Measures for aiding those unable to return home.

Of these issues, the action plan for wide area medical decided at the Superintendents Meeting in Central Disaster Prevention Council in August 1988.

See the Structure of Earthquake Disaster Countermeasures in the

Southern Kanto Region.

5. PREVENTION MEASURES MAKING CITIES MORE DISASTER RESISTANT.

. 5-year plan for emergency earthquake disaster prevention projects

In order to strengthen regional disaster prevention capabilities, it will be necessary to develop various facilities, such as evacuation areas and routes, fire fighting facilities, more earthquake resistant public facilities and disaster prevention radio communication networks.

The experience of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake has shown the urgency of the need for establishing these facilities to prevent earthquake disasters. As a positive step toward creating the facilities, the Earthquake Disaster Prevention Special Measures Act was promulgated in July 1995. This act enabled the various prefectural governors to draw up 5-year plans for an emergency earthquake disaster prevention projects.

All 47 prefectures have drawn up 5-year plans for emergency earthquake disaster prevention projects that began in the fiscal year of 1996 and work is already underway. Included are measures to give priority to those plan activities that qualify for national government assistance and to further increase the rate of subsidy for certain types of activities.

. Equipping Disaster Prevention Bases

In order to respond effectively to earthquakes and other disasters, it is essential to properly equip facilities that will serve as bases that provide countermeasures for disasters.

The national government is in the process of setting up facilities in the Prime Minister's residence to accommodate the Headquarters for Emergency Disaster Countermeasures whenever a major disaster occurs. Work is also underway on backup facilities. These include the National Land Agency buildings, the Defense Agency buildings and the Tachikawa Substitute Facility of Government's Headquarters for Disaster Countermeasures.

Work is progressing on the Tachikawa Substitute Facility of Government's Headquarters for Disaster Countermeasures and surrounding area, which will enable it to serve as the Tachikawa Regional Disaster Prevention Base, a wide area emergency measures facility, in the event of a major earthquake in the Southern Kanto Region. Fire fighting, policing, medical service and warehousing facilities are being installed.

The prefectural and municipal governments are also developing disaster prevention bases that will be able to provide all the emergency services. The National Land Agency is working in coordination with the administrative organs of government involved to organize the operation of the various disaster prevention bases and is engaged in activities to assist in developing the disaster prevention bases for prefectural governments.

These activities include subsidizing the development costs incurred by the prefectural governments for those bases that are designed to provide emergency services when disasters occur and that function as centers for providing public relations information, education and training on disaster prevention during normal times.

. Making Cities More Disaster Resistant

Most of Japan's cities are densely populated areas located on alluvial plain ground, which serves to magnify the effects of earthquakes. The disasters that major earthquakes, with their ensuing tremors and ground liquefaction, can potentially cause widespread disruption to the principle functions of urban centers, including the networks of transportation, power and gas.

Therefore, not only must the various individual facilities but the urban infrastructure itself must be made more earthquake resistant. This Is currently being carried out by the government ministries and agencies, prefectural governments and related administrative organs who are instituting counter measures based on the Basic, Operational and Local Plans for Disaster Prevention. These measures include promoting fire resistance by introducing regulations for construction of wooden structures and providing subsidies for construction of more flame-proof buildings, while maintaining and securing key urban functions by making redundancy into the transportation, power and gas systems into networks.

. Making Facilities and Structures More Earthquake Resistant

The basic approach to reducing the degree of direct damage that occurs when earthquakes strike lies in strengthening the earthquake resistant properties of facilities and structures.

According to the July 1995 revision to the Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention, facilities must be designed to meet a system of two-tier criteria. The first criterion stipulates that, depending on the importance of the building, it must be able to withstand earthquakes of the magnitude that occur once or twice in the life of a facility, with its functions intact. The second criterion stipulates that the building, even If damaged, be strong enough to prevent serious bodily harm to occupants when subjected to a major earthquake of the magnitude of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake.

Buildings designed according to the regulations of the enforcement ordinance specified in the 1980 revision to the Building Standards Act for the most part escaped damage in the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. Buildings, especially wooden structures, designed according to earlier building standards, however, suffered serious damage, often resulting in loss of life.

Because of this, efforts are now underway to fully develop a system of inspection for new buildings to more effectively enforce building ordinances, while at the same time, make existing buildings more earthquake resistant in line with the "Law for the Promotion of Earthquake-Proof Improvements to Buildings" passed in October, 1995.

The earthquake-proof standards for roads, railway lines and lifeline facilities have been reviewed and upgraded wherever necessary. At the same time, work is rapidly being done to renovate and strengthen key facilities.

6. EMERGENCY COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST EARTHQUAKE DISASTER

Should a disaster occur, information such as the extent and scale of the damage should first be gathered quickly, and this should be relayed to relevant personnel and organizations. Then requisite systems will be arranged on the basis of this information. Headquarters for Disaster Countermeasures will be set up in municipalities or prefectures and countermeasures carried out whenever necessary based on local plans for disaster preveution, while in the event of a large-scale disaster the national government will also promote countermeasures by setting up Headquarters for Extraordinary Disaster Countermeasures or Headquarters for Emergency Disaster Countermeasures, depending on the circumstances of the disaster based on basic and operational plans for disaster prevention.

Meanwhile, whenever necessary Local Headquarters for Countermeasures may be set up in the disaster-stricken area and a system organized to implement countermeasures quickly, ' In accordance with the requirements of the disaster area.

As the next specific emergency disaster countermeasures following the gathering and relay of information, activities to be undertaken will include saving human lives, first aid, medical treatment, and fire-fighting, evacuation countermeasures and support countermeasures such as preventing secondary disasters and supplying food or drinking water to the disaster victims.

Even after responding to the immediate danger situation, countermeasures such as maintaining sanitation, Law and order, restoring disaster-stricken facilities such as lifelines and public facilities, and supplying information to disaster victims will be carried out.

In order to implement these emergency disaster countermeasures appropriately in the event of a large-scale disaster, human and material support must be carried out effectively over a broad area, thus it is important that we reinforce systems of cooperation at all times.

7. DISASTER RESTORATION/RECOVERY COUNTERMEASURES

The restoration and recovery of the disaster-stricken area has the objective of supporting the reconstruction of the lives of disaster victims, striving for the recovery of facilities with a view to preventing the recurrence of disasters, and creating fundamental conditions for regional development, with greater attention to safety. In addition it strives to achieve restoration and recovery as promptly and smoothly as possible, in view of the state of reduced social activity in a region following to a disaster.

Moreover, for the Great Hanshin Earthquake, the government set up Headquarters for Recovery Counter-measures and is promoting restoration and recovery countermeasures on the basis of locally prepared recovery plans.

8. DISASTER INFORMATION SYSTEMS

(1) Purpose of the Disaster Information Systems (DIS)

The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake served to remind us again of the importance of quickly determining the extent of damage, taking the correct first measures, and the need to strengthen the ability of the related agencies and authorities to share information and coordinate their efforts.

The National Land Agency is developing the Disaster Information Systems (DIS) as a means for quickly determining the extent of damage, enabling the related agencies and authorities to share information and providing the support for making quick and accurate decision when implementing emergency measures.See the Constitution of DIS.

(2) Early Estimation System (EES)

The Early Estimation System (EES) enables assessment of the scale of damage caused by the earthquake to be evaluated within a short period under limited information conditions. It is designed to supply the information needed by government authorities to make decisions quickly and accurately when responding to the situation.

A database of information on the geographical and local foundational ground conditions, and building and population characteristics throughout Japan has been created for the EES. This is used to assess the seismic mesh distribution, based on seismic information from the Meteorological Agency, and the resulting damage to buildings and human life. The EES automatically begin operation when a scale 4 earthquake is detected and produce assessment reports within 30 minutes from earthquake.

Since commencing operation in April 1996 produced many good results.

(3) Emergency Measures Support System (EMS)

The Emergency Measures Support System (EMS) is designed to configure structures that enable the various related agencies and authorities to share information during an emergency and to support the various emergency measures taken by the government.

The EMS possesses a database containing information on infrastructure facilities, such as roads and railways, and disaster prevention facilities, such as fire stations and hospitals. It displays damage information, together with emergency measures information, on maps that can be shared by the related agencies and authorities. Installation of EMS terminals in the agencies and authorities under the Central Disaster Prevention Council began In 1998. These are being linked to form the DIS network using the Central Disaster Prevention radio network.

Rescue, medical treatment and emergency transportation applications are currently under development.

9. STRENGTHENING DISASTER PREVENTION SYSTEMS AND RAISING DISASTER PREVENTION AWARENESS

. Setting up Disaster Prevention Radio Communication Network

The National Land Agency and other bodies connected with disaster prevention in the national government, prefectures, and so on, need to secure communications needed for disaster countermeasures and promote disaster countermeasures smoothly and quickly, by gathering and transmitting accurate information in the event of a large-scale earthquake or other extraordinary disaster.

Therefore, these bodies should arrange various disaster prevention radio networks using exclusive radio transmission channels, and make every effort in the event of an extraordinary disaster.

Disaster prevention radio networks include central disaster prevention radio that links the central ministries etc. now being arranged by the National Land Agency; fire defense disaster prevention radio that links the Fire Defense Agency with prefectural offices, and disaster prevention administrative radio that is being built to enable prefectures and municipalities to gather and transmit disaster information on the basis of local disaster prevention plans.

Diagram of Prevention Radio Communication Network . Drawing up Earthquake Disaster Version in Local Plan for Disaster Prevention

Since the earthquake disaster bears different characteristics from the wind and flood disaster, the national government has been providing the local governments with guidance on drawing up separate local plan for earthquake disaster countermeasures.

. System for securing Emergency Supplies

In order to keep the livelihood and health of citizens at the time of disaster, the local governments are improving a system where by rice, hard-dried biscuits, drinking water, and medical supplies are secured and readily available.

(Staple Food)

The arrangements are made, in order to maintain uninterrupted food supply, to correctly report the quantity of rice the national government stocks in the disaster-inflicted prefecture and neighboring prefectures.

The stockpile of hard-dried biscuits and powdered milk for infants are also maintained, and at the same time the liaison system among the related industries and distribution channels of such products is being improved to ensure the supply.

(Water supply)

To cope with the situation where water supply would be discontinued due to the breakdown of water facilities, the local governments are preparing water supply trucks and emergency water tanks.

(Medical supplies)

The national government, Local governments, the Japan Red Cross Society, and related industries proceed to improve on the procurement and stockpiling of medical supplies required for medical relief activities in case of a disaster.

. General Disaster Prevention Exercise

Since 1971, disaster prevention exercise for taking countermeasures against earthquake disaster have been conducted under close and effective linkage among the national government, Local governments and other organizations every year.

In 1979, exercise to prepare people for a Tokai Earthquake became a pressing issue. Since then, practical and comprehensive disaster prevention exercises have been conducted on the basis of the large-scale Earthquake Countermeasures Act. Another exercises on the assumption of a large-scale earthquake directly below the Southern Kanto region have been conducted since 1983.

Local governments also conduct' their own exercises according to their local requirements and necessities.

. Dissemination of Knowledge concerning Earthquake Disasters

For the purpose of minimizing the damages resulting from the earthquake disaster, the activities for dissemination of useful knowledge for disaster prevention is widely offered to both the citizens and the disaster prevention administrators in the most appropriate way.

Such activities consist of public information by means of radio and TV broadcast, lending out of disaster prevention movie films, holding events in the Disaster Prevention Week and lecture sessions, distributing pamphlets, etc.

Autonomous Disaster Prevention Organizations and Voluntary Activities

The activities of volunteer organizations and autonomous disaster prevention organizations, comprised of local residents, play an important role in reducing the damage caused by earthquakes.

With this in mind, the government designated January 17 as national "Disaster Prevention and Volunteer's Day" and the week of January 15 to 21 as national "Disaster Prevention and Volunteer's Week". These are designed to raise awareness of the volunteer and autonomous work per-formed during disasters among Japan's citizens and the various regional disaster prevention agencies and authorities, and to thereby enhance preparations for disasters. Disaster prevention related agencies and authorities hold some events in and around this week.

10. PROMOTION OF EARTHQUAKE RESEARCH

Since the proposal, in 1946, of an earthquake prediction plan by the Geodesy Council (an advisory organ for the Minister of Education), a systematic research on the earthquake prediction has started.

In 1969 the Coordination Committee for Earthquake Prediction was established in the Geographical Survey Institute, the Ministry of Construction, for facilitating ex-change of information among various research organizations and for the composite assessment and judgement on such information.

Furthermore, in 1995, on the basis of the Earthquake Disaster Prevention Special Measures Act, a Headquarters of Earthquake Research Promotion (headed by the Director of the Science & Technology Agency) has been set up in the Prime Minister's Office, thus strengthening the government's system of survey research on earthquakes. This replaces the Headquarters for Promoting Earthquake Prediction that was set up in the Cabinet in 1976 (Secretariat: Science & Technology Agency).

In the Headquarters for Promoting Earthquake Survey Research, two committees have been set up: a Policy Committee that proposes overall and basic policies, coordinates budgets, prepares overall observation plans, undertakes PR, etc., and an Earthquake Survey Committee that gathers, collates, and analyzes survey results from all organizations, and makes overall evaluations on the basis of these. Thus, these are uniformly promoting the overall evaluation of planning, coordination, and survey results, etc. from observation surveying surveys, and research relating to earthquakes.

11. PROMOTING TSUNAMI COUNTERMEASURES

(1) The circumstances in which tsunami occur and the conditions of tsunami disasters

While Japan is a country frequently visited by earthquakes, which often generate tsunamis particularly on the pacific coast.

Disasters caused by the Sanriku Earthquake (1933), the Tonankai Earthquake (1944), the Nankai Earthquake (1946), the Chile Earthquake (1960) the Nihonkai- chubu Earthquake (1983), Hokkai-do- Nansei-oki the and Earthquake (1993) can be mentioned as those which have led to great damage from tsunamis since the Great Kanto Earthquake. For example, major disasters of this sort include the deaths of 3,000 people who perished as a result of the Sanriku Earthquake tsunami, while the Chile Earthquake tsunami left 119 dead and 20 missing, the tsunami after the Nihonkai-chubu Earthquake caused 100 deaths and there have been major disasters such as 230 deaths of people as a result of tsunami caused by the Hokkai-do-Nansei-oki Earthquake.

(2) Tsunami countermeasures

It would be no exaggeration to say that the whole coastal area of Japan is vulnerable to attacks by tsunamis. Therefore, it goes without saying that adequate countermeasures against tsunamis But as well as this, adequate steps need to be taken to educate people throughout the country on the subject of tsunamis, now that sea based leisure activities are being pursued almost all year round from beaches to offshore areas.

a.Speeding up the issue and transmission of tsunami warnings

The Meteorological Agency identifies the existence of tsunami and its scale about 2-3 minutes after an earthquake has been observed in off shore waters; it then issues a tsunami warning. Tsunami warnings are instantly transmitted to disaster prevention organizations, the media, regional meteorological stations and observatories, and are then relayed in turn to residents, shipping, and so on.

b.Improving coastal defenses

Coastal defenses such as sea wall, gate against storm surge are promoting to protect coastal area.

c.Instilling alertness for tsunamis

Through propagation of Tsunami Warning to coastal areas discussed and agreed upon by coordination Committee for Tsunami Warning System

d.Guide for Intensifying Tsunami Countermeasures

With the current level of technology, it is difficult to predict where and when tsunami will occur and differences In regional characteristics make it hard to estimate the kind of damage to expect. This makes it very difficult to study tsunami countermeasures.

In order to study tsunami wave countermeasures from a broad perspective and obtain reference for intensifying tsunami countermeasures the National Land Agency, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the Fisheries Agency, the Ministry of Transportation, the Meteorological Agency, the Ministry of Construction and the Fire Defense Agency got together and drew up a list of proposals concerning basic approaches to tsunami disaster prevention and basic policies for tsunami countermeasures plans and their procedures. These were compiled in the Guide for Intensifying Tsunami Countermeasures in Local Plan for Disaster Prevention and distributed to all prefectural governments. In addition to this Guide, the Tsunami Disaster Forecasting Manual, containing description of procedures for generating tsunami penetration forecasting diagrams, was also drawn up.

See Types of Tsunami Forecast